Sarkopenia pada Lansia: Problem Diagnosis dan Tatalaksana
Synopsis
Sarkopenia merupakan penurunan massa otot ynag disertai dengan penurunan kekuatan otot dan atau performanya. Hal ini sering dianggap sebagai perubahan fisiologi biasa akibat proses penuaan dan sering tidak mendapatkan perhatian. Faktanya, sarkopenia merupakan pintu masuk awal dari semua penyakit yang ditakuti seperti diabetes. Sarkopenia meningkatkan resiko kejadian osteoporosis, diabetes, penyakit jantung koroner, hipertensi bahkan kanker. Hal ini dimungkinkan karena otot memiliki hubungan secara sistemik dengan seluruh organ tubuh kita.
Buku ini dimaksudkan sebagai sumber yang bermanfaat bagi mahasiswa kedokteran, residen, rekan sejawat, juga klinisi dan peneliti. Dalam buku ini membahas problem dan tataklasana sarkopenia secara komprehensif. Penulis berharap buku ini akan memenuhi tujuan yang diinginkan dalam memberikan pengetahuan praktis yang dapat langsung diterapkan untuk meningkatkan perawatan pasien.
Downloads
References
Ahima, R. S. and Park, H. (2015) ‘Review Article Connecting Myokines and Metabolism’, Endocrinology and Metabolism, 30(3), pp. 235–245.
Akerstrom, T. et al. (2005) ‘Exercise induces interleukin-8 expression in human skeletal muscle.’, The Journal of physiology, 563(Pt 2), pp. 507–516. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2004.077610.
Arnold, A., Egger, A. and Handschin, C. (2011) ‘PGC-1 α and Myokines in the Aging Muscle – A Mini-Review’, Gerontology, 57(1), pp. 37–43. doi:10.1159/000281883.
Aryana, I. G. P. S., Hapsari, A. A. A. R. and Kuswardhani, R. A.T. (2018) ‘Myokine Regulation as Marker of Sarcopenia in Elderly’, Molecular and Cellular Biomedical Sciences, 2(2), p. 38. doi:10.21705/mcbs.v2i2.32.
Aryana, S. and Kuswardhani, R. T. (2018) ‘Controversion on antioxidant administration in elderly’, MOJ Yoga & Physical Thrapy, 3(2), pp. 49–52. doi:10.15406/mojypt.2018.03.00043.
Badan Pusat Statistik (2018) Statistik Penduduk Lanjut Usia 2017. Jakarta.
Baumgartner, R. N. et al. (1998) ‘Epidemiology of sarcopenia among the elderly in New Mexico’, American Journal of Epidemiology, 147(8), pp. 755–763. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009520.
Belizário, J. E. et al. (2016) ‘Skeletal muscle wasting and renewal : a pivotal role of myokine IL ‑ 6’, SpringerPlus. Springer International Publishing, 5, p. 619. doi:10.1186/s40064-016-2197-2.
Benton, M. J., Whyte, M. D. and Dyal, B. W. (2011) ‘Sarcopenic obesity: strategies for management.’, The American journal of nursing, 111(12), pp. 38-44–6. doi:10.1097/01.NAJ.0000408184.21770.98.
Bergen, H. R. et al. (2015) ‘Myostatin as a mediator ofsarcopenia versus homeostatic regulator of muscle mass: Insights using a new mass spectrometry-based assay’, Skeletal Muscle, 5(1). doi:10.1186/s13395-015-0047-5.
Boss, G. R. and Seegmiller, J. E. (1981) ‘Age-related physiological changes and their clinical significance.’, The Western journal of medicine, 135(6), pp. 434–40. doi: 10.1177/0256090920040202.
Brandt, C. and Pedersen, B. K. (2010) ‘The Role of ExerciseInduced Myokines in Muscle Homeostasis and the Defense against Chronic Diseases’, Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology, 2010, pp. 1–6. doi:10.1155/2010/520258.
Broholm, C. et al. (2008) ‘Exercise induces expression of leukaemia inhibitory factor in human skeletal muscle’, The Journal of physiology, 586(8), pp. 2195–2201. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2007.149781.
Broholm, C. and Pedersen, B. K. (2010) ‘Leukaemia inhibitory factor - An exercise-induced myokine’, Exercise Immunology Review, 16, pp. 77–85.
Burks, T. N. et al. (2011) ‘Losartan restores skeletal muscle remodeling and protects against disuse atrophy in sarcopenia’, Science Translational Medicine, 3(82). doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.3002227.
Burton, L. A. and Sumukadas, D. (2010) ‘Optimal management of sarcopenia.’, Clinical interventions in aging, 5, pp. 217–228. doi:10.2147/CIA.S11473.
Camporez, J.-P. G. et al. (2016) ‘Anti-myostatin antibody increases muscle mass and strength and improves insulin sensitivity in old mice’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(8), pp. 2212–2217. doi:10.1073/pnas.1525795113.
Carey, A. L. et al. (2006) ‘Interleukin-6 increases insulinstimulated glucose disposal in humans and glucose uptake and fatty acid oxidation in vitro via AMPactivated protein kinase’, Diabetes, 55(10), pp. 2688–2697. doi: 10.2337/db05-1404.
Chen, L. K. et al. (2014) ‘Sarcopenia in Asia: Consensus report of the Asian working group for sarcopenia’, Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 15(2), pp.95–101. doi: 10.1016/j.jamda.2013.11.025.
Chen, N. et al. (2015) ‘Irisin , an exercise-induced myokine as a metabolic regulator : An updated narrative review’, Diabetes/Metabolism Research And Reviews, 32(1), pp. 51–59. doi: 10.1002/dmrr.2660.
Chen, X., Mao, G. and Leng, S. X. (2014) ‘Frailty syndrome: An overview’, Clinical Interventions in Aging, pp. 433–441. doi: 10.2147/CIA.S45300.
Clegg, A. et al. (2013) ‘Frailty in elderly people’, in The Lancet, pp. 752–762. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62167-9.
Evenhuis, H. M. et al. (2012) ‘Frailty and Disability in Older Adults with Intellectual Disabilities: Results from the Healthy Ageing and Intellectual Disability Study’, Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 60(5), pp. 934–938. doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2012.03925.x.
Fabbro, E. Del, Dalal, S. and Bruera, E. (2006) ‘Symptom Control in Palliative Care—Part II: Cachexia/Anorexia and Fatigue’, Journal of Palliative Medicine, 9(2), pp.409–421. doi: 10.1089/jpm.2006.9.409.
Fan, J. et al. (2016) ‘MicroRNA-regulated proinflammatory cytokines in sarcopenia’, Mediators of Inflammation. doi:10.1155/2016/1438686.
Febbraio, M. a and Pedersen, B. (2002) ‘Muscle-derived interleukin-6: mechanisms for activation and possible biological roles’, The FASEB Journal, 16(11), pp. 1335–347. doi:10.1096/fj.01-0876rev.
Fedarko, N. S. (2011) ‘The Biology of Aging and Frailty’, Clinics in Geriatric Medicine, pp. 27–37. doi:10.1016/j.cger.2010.08.006.
Fried, L. P., Walston, J. D. and Ferrucci, L. (2009) ‘Frailty’, in Hazzard’s Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology. 6th edn. New York: Mc Graw Hill, pp. 631–45.
Frydelund-Larsen, L. et al. (2007) ‘Exercise induces interleukin8 receptor (CXCR2) expression in human skeletal muscle’, Experimental Physiology, 92(1), pp. 233–240. doi:10.1113/expphysiol.2006.034769.
Fryer, L. G. D. et al. (2002) ‘Characterization of the role of the AMP-activated protein kinase in the stimulation of glucose transport in skeletal muscle cells.’, The Biochemical journal, 363(Pt 1), pp. 167–174.
Gao, L. et al. (2015) ‘Prevalence of Sarcopenia and Associated Factors in Chinese Community-Dwelling Elderly: Comparison Between Rural and Urban Areas’, Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 16(11), p. 1003.e1-1003.e6. doi:10.1016/j.jamda.2015.07.020.
Giannoulis, M. G. et al. (2012) ‘Hormone replacement therapy and physical function in healthy older men. Time to talk hormones?’, Endocrine Reviews, 33(3), pp.314–377. doi: 10.1210/er.2012-1002.
Giresi, P. G. et al. (2005) ‘Identification of a molecular signature of sarcopenia’, Physiological Genomics, 21(2), pp. 253–263. doi:10.1152/physiolgenomics.00249.2004.
Hiscock, N. (2004) ‘Skeletal myocytes are a source of interleukin-6 mRNA expression and protein release during contraction: evidence of fiber type specificity’, The FASEB Journal. doi: 10.1096/fj.03-1259fje.
Hojman, P. et al. (2009) ‘Fibroblast growth factor-21 is induced in human skeletal muscles by hyperinsulinemia’, Diabetes, 58(12), pp. 2797–2801. doi:10.2337/db09-0713.
Hunt, L. C. et al. (2011) ‘Alterations in the expression of leukemia inhibitory factor following exercise: comparisons between wild-type and mdx muscles’, PLoS Currents, 3, p. 1277. doi: http://doi.org/10.1371/currents.
Izumiya, Y. et al. (2008) ‘FGF21 is an Akt-regulated myokine’, FEBS Lett, 582(27), pp. 3805–3810. doi:10.1016/j.febslet.2008.10.021.FGF21.
Janssen, C. I. F. and Kiliaan, A. J. (2014) ‘Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) from genesis to senescence: The influence of LCPUFA on neural development, aging, and neurodegeneration’, Progress in Lipid Research, 53(1), pp. 1–17. doi:10.1016/j.plipres.2013.10.002.
Jentoft, A. J. C. et al. (2010) ‘Sarcopenia : European consensus on definition and diagnosis’, Age and Ageing, 39(4), pp. 412–423. doi:10.1093/ageing/afq034.
Kamel, H. K., Maas, D. and Duthie, E. H. (2002) ‘Role of hormones in the pathogenesis and management of sarcopenia’, Drugs and Aging, 19(11), pp. 865–877. doi:10.2165/00002512-200219110-00004.
Kementerian Kesehatan RI (2016) Infodatin Lanjut Usia (lansia), Pusat Data dan Informasi Kementerian Kesehatan RI.
Kementerian Kesehatan RI (2017) Analisis Lansia Di Indonesia. Jakarta.
Kirkwood, T. B. L. (2008) ‘A systematic look at an old problem’, Nature, 451(7179), pp. 644–647. doi: 10.1038/451644a.
Krolopp, J. E., Thornton, S. M. and Abbott, M. J. (2016) ‘IL-15 Activates the Jak3/STAT3 Signaling Pathway to Mediate Glucose Uptake in Skeletal Muscle Cells’,Frontiers in Physiology, 7, p. 626.
Kunkel, S. D. et al. (2011) ‘mRNA expression signatures of human skeletal muscle atrophy identify a natural compound that increases muscle mass’, Cell Metabolism, 13(6), pp. 627–638. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2011.03.020.
Lange, J. and Grossman, S. (2010) ‘Theories of Aging’, in Gerontological Nursing: Competencies for Care. 2nd edn. Burlington: Jones & Bartlett Learning, pp. 41–65. Available at: http://samples.jbpub.com/9781284104479/Chapter_3.pdf.
Langley, B. et al. (2002) ‘Myostatin inhibits myoblast differentiation by down-regulating MyoD expression’, Journal of Biological Chemistry, 277(51), pp. 49831– 49840. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M204291200.
Limpawattana, P., Kotruchin, P. and Pongchaiyakul, C. (2015) ‘Sarcopenia in Asia’, Osteoporosis and Sarcopenia, 1(2), pp. 92–97. doi:10.1016/j.afos.2015.10.001.
Manini, T. M. and Clark, B. C. (2012) ‘Dynapenia and Aging :An Update’, Journal of Gerontology: MEDICAL SCIENCES, 67A(1), pp. 28–40. doi: 10.1093/gerona/glr010.
Martone, A. et al. (2015) ‘Treating Sarcopenia in Older and Oldest Old’, Current Pharmaceutical Design, 21(13), pp. 1715–1722. doi:10.2174/1381612821666150130122032.
Marzetti, E. et al. (2009) ‘Changes in IL-15 expression and death-receptor apoptotic signaling in rat gastrocnemius muscle with aging and life-long calorie restriction’, Mechanisms of Ageing and Development, 130(4), pp. 272–280. doi: 10.1016/j.mad.2008.12.008.
Matthews, V. B. et al. (2009) ‘Brain-derived neurotrophic factor is produced by skeletal muscle cells in response to contraction and enhances fat oxidation via activation of AMP-activated protein kinase’, Diabetologia, 52(7), pp. 1409–1418. doi: 10.1007/s00125-009-1364-1.
Melton, L. J., Khosla, S. and Riggs, B. L. (2000) ‘Epidemiology of sarcopenia.’, Mayo Clinic proceedings. Mayo Clinic, 75 Suppl(1), pp. S10-NaN-S13. doi: 10.1016/j.cger.2011.03.004.
Millward, D. J. et al. (2002) ‘Efficiency of utilization of wheat and milk protein in healthy adults and apparent lysine requirements determined by a single-meal [1-13C]leucine balance protocol’, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 76(6), pp. 1326–1334.
Mirkin, B. and Weinberger, M. B. (2001) ‘The demography of population ageing’, United Nations Population Bulletin, 42(43), pp. 41–48. Available at: http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/bulletin42_43/weinbergermirkin.pdf.
Morley, J. E. (2009) ‘Vitamin D Redux’, Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, pp. 591–592. doi: 10.1016/j.jamda.2009.08.013.
Morley, J. E., Thomas, D. R. and Wilson, M.-M. G. (2006).‘Cachexia: pathophysiology and clinical relevance.’, The American journal of clinical nutrition, 83(4), pp. 735–43. doi: 10.1080/09585199200000155.
Muscaritoli, M. et al. (2010) ‘Consensus definition of sarcopenia, cachexia and pre-cachexia: Joint document elaborated by Special Interest Groups (SIG) “ cachexia-anorexia in chronic wasting diseases” and “ nutrition in geriatrics”’, Clinical Nutrition, 29(2), pp. 154–159. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2009.12.004.
Narici, M. V., Maffulli, N. and Maganaris, C. N. (2008) ‘Ageing of human muscles and tendons’, Disability and Rehabilitation, 30(20–22), pp. 1548–1554. doi: 10.1080/09638280701831058.
Nie, J. and Helene Sage, E. (2009) ‘SPARC inhibits adipogenesis By its enhancement of ??-catenin signaling’, Journal of Biological Chemistry, 284(2), pp.1279–1290. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M808285200.
Nielsen, A. R. et al. (2008) ‘Association between Interleukin-15 and Obesity : Interleukin-15 as a Potential Regulator of Fat Mass’, 93(November), pp. 4486–4493. doi:10.1210/jc.2007-2561.
Nielsen, A. R. and Pedersen, B. K. (2007) ‘The biological roles of exercise-induced cytokines : IL-6 , IL-8 , and IL-15’, Applied physiology, nutrition, and metabolism, 32(5), pp. 833–839. doi: 10.1139/H07-054.
Norton, L. E. and Layman, D. K. (2006) ‘Leucine regulates translation initiation of protein synthesis in skeletal muscle after exercise.’, The Journal of nutrition, 136, p.533S–537S. doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2005.12.019.
ONU (2015) ‘World population, ageing’, Suggested citation:United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2015). World Population Ageing, United Nat((ST/ESA/SER.A/390), p.164. doi:ST/ESA/SER.A/390.
Ouchi, N. et al. (2008) ‘Follistatin-like 1 , a Secreted Muscle Protein , Promotes Endothelial Cell Function and Revascularization in Ischemic Tissue through a Nitric-oxide Synthase-dependent Mechanism’, The Journal of biological chemistry, 283(47), pp. 32802–32811. doi:10.1074/jbc.M803440200.
Paddon-jones, D. et al. (2008) ‘Role of Dietary Protein in The Sarcopenia of Aging’, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 87, pp. 1562–1566.
Park, D. C. and Yeo, S. G. (2013) ‘Aging’, Korean Journal of Audiology, 17(2), pp. 39–44. doi:10.7874/kja.2013.17.2.39.
Pedersen, B. (2006) ‘No TitleThe anti-inflammatory effect of exercise: its role in diabetes and cardiovascular disease control’, Essays in Biochemistry, 40, pp. 105–117.
Pedersen, B. K. et al. (2007) ‘Role of myokines in exercise and metabolism’, Journal of Applied Physiology, 103(3), pp.1093–1098. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00080.2007.
Pedersen, B. K. (2009) ‘The diseasome of physical inactivity - and the role of myokines in muscle-fat cross talk’, Journal of Physiology, pp.5559–5568. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2009.179515.
Pedersen, B. K. (2009a) ‘The diseasome of physical inactivity – and the role of myokines in muscle – fat cross talk’, The Journal of physiology, 587(3), pp. 5559–5568. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2009.179515.
Pedersen, B. K. (2009b) ‘The diseasome of physical inactivity – and the role of myokines in muscle – fat cross talk’, 23, pp. 5559–5568. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2009.179515.
Perry, H. M. et al. (2000) ‘Testosterone and leptin in older African-American men: Relationship to age, strength, function, and season’, Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental, 49(8), pp. 1085–1091. doi:10.1053/meta.2000.7710.
Pongchaiyakul, C. et al. (2013) ‘Prevalence of sarcopenia and associated factors among Thai population’, Journal of Bone and Mineral Metabolism, 31(3), pp.346–350. doi: 10.1007/s00774-013-0422-4.
Potthoff, M. J. et al. (2009) ‘FGF21 induces PGC-1 and regulates carbohydrate and fatty acid metabolism during the adaptive starvation response’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(26), pp.10853–10858. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0904187106.
Pratesi, A., Tarantini, F. and Bari, M. Di (2013) ‘Skeletal muscle : an endocrine organ’, Clinical Cases in Mineral and Bone Metabolism, 10(1), pp. 11–14.
Puts, M. T. E. et al. (2005) ‘Endocrine and inflammatory markers as predictors of frailty’, Clinical Endocrinology, 63(4), pp. 403–411. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2265.2005.02355.x.
Quinn, L. S., Haugk, K. L. and Grabstein, K. H. (1995) ‘Interleukin-15: A novel anabolic cytokine for skeletal muscle’, Endocrinology, 136(8), pp. 3669–3672. doi:10.1210/endo.136.8.7628408.
Robertson, R. G. and Montagnini, M. (2004) ‘Geriatric failure to thrive’, American Family Physician, 70(2), pp. 343–350.
Rodríguez-Mañas, L. et al. (2013) ‘Searching for an operational definition of frailty: A delphi method based consensus statement. the frailty operative definitionconsensus conference project’, Journals of Gerontology - Series A Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 68(1), pp. 62–67. doi: 10.1093/gerona/gls119.
Roubenoff, R. (1999) ‘The Pathophysiology of Wasting in the Elderly’, The Journal of Nutrition, 129(1), p. 256S–259S. doi: 10.1093/jn/129.1.256S.
Ruderman, N. B. et al. (2006) ‘Interleukin-6 regulation of AMPactivated protein kinase: Potential role in the systemic response to exercise and prevention of the metabolic syndrome’, Diabetes. doi: 10.2337/db06-S007.
Sakuma, K. and Yamaguchi, A. (2012) ‘Novel intriguing strategies attenuating to sarcopenia’, Journal of Aging Research, 2012. doi: 10.1155/2012/251217.
Sartori, R. et al. (2009) ‘Smad2 and 3 transcription factors control muscle mass in adulthood.’, American journal of physiology. Cell physiology, 296(6), pp. C1248-57. doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.00104.2009.
Schnyder, S. and Handschin, C. (2015) ‘Skeletal muscle as an endocrine organ: PGC-1α, myokines and exercise’, Bone, 80, pp. 115–125. doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2015.02.008.
Setiati, S. (2013) ‘Geriatric Medicine , Sarkopenia , Frailty dan Kualitas Hidup Pasien Usia Lanjut : Tantangan Masa Depan Pendidikan , Penelitian dan Pelayanan Kedokteran di Indonesia *’.
Setiati, S. and Rizka, A. (2004a) ‘Kerapuhan Dan Sindrom Gagal Pulih’, in Buku Ajar Ilmu Penyakit Dalam. III. Jakarta: Balai Penerbit FKUI, pp. 3725–3729.
Setiati, S. and Rizka, A. (2004b) ‘Sarkopenia’, in Buku Ajar Ilmu Penyakit Dalam. III. Jakarta: Balai Penerbit FKUI, pp.3717–3724.
Seto, E. et al. (2015) ‘Diagnostic test of a scoring system for frailty syndrome in the elderly according to Cardiovascular Health Study of Osteoporotic Fracture and Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment based Frailty Index Compared with Frailty Index 40 Items.’, Acta medica Indonesiana, 47(3), pp. 183–187.
Sharma, M. et al. (2015) ‘Myostatin: Expanding Horizons’, International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 67, pp. 589–600.
Shin, M. J., Jeon, Y. K. and Kim, I. J. (2018) ‘Testosterone and Sarcopenia’, The World Journal of Men’s Health, 36(3), pp. 192–198. doi: 10.5534/wjmh.180001.
Simopoulos, A. P. (2006) ‘Evolutionary aspects of diet, the omega-6/omega-3 ratio and genetic variation: nutritional implications for chronic diseases’, Biomedicine and Pharmacotherapy, 60(9), pp. 502–507. doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2006.07.080.
Siriett, V. et al. (2006) ‘Prolonged absence of myostatin reduces sarcopenia’, Journal of Cellular Physiology, 209(3), pp. 866–873. doi: 10.1002/jcp.20778. So, B. et al. (2014) ‘Exercise-induced myokines in health and metabolic diseases’, Integrative medicine research. Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, 3(4), pp. 172–179.
Steensberg, A. et al. (2000) ‘Production of interleukin-6 in contracting human skeletal muscles can account for the exercise-induced increase in plasma interleukin-6’, Journal of Physiology, 529(1), pp. 237–242. doi:131 Sarkopenia 10.1111/j.1469-7793.2000.00237.x.
Steensberg, A. et al. (2003) ‘IL-6 enhances plasma IIL-1ra, IL10, and cortisol in humans’, American Journal of Physiology - Endocrinology And Metabolism, 285(2), pp. E433–E437. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00074.2003.
Thompson, D. D. (2007) ‘Aging and sarcopenia.’, Journal of musculoskeletal & neuronal interactions, 7(4), pp. 344-345. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00347.2003.
Tocchi, C. et al. (2014) ‘Development of a Frailty Measure for Older Adults: The Frailty Index for Elders’, Journal of Nursing Measurement, 22(2), pp. 223–240. doi: 10.1891/1061-3749.22.2.223.
Trendelenburg, A. U. et al. (2009) ‘Myostatin reduces Akt/TORC1/p70S6K signaling, inhibiting myoblast differentiation and myotube size’, AJP: Cell Physiology, 296(6), pp. C1258–C1270. doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00105.2009.
Veldhuis, J. D. et al. (2001) ‘Interactive regulation of postmenopausal growth hormone insulin-like growth factor axis by estrogen and growth hormone-releasing peptide-2’, Endocrine, 14(1), pp. 45–62.
Vitriana et al. (2016) ‘Prevalensi Sarkopenia pada Lansia di Komunitas (Community Dwelling) berdasarkan Dua Nilai Cut-off Parameter Diagnosis’, Majalah Kedokteran Bandung, 48(3), pp. 164–170. doi:10.15395/mkb.v48n3.417.
Volpi, E. et al. (2013) ‘Is the Optimal Level of Protein Intake for Older Adults Greater Than the Recommended Dietary Allowance ?’, 68(6), pp. 677–681. doi:10.1093/gerona/gls229.
Waldmann, T. A. (2006) ‘The biology of interleukin-2 and interleukin-15 : implications for cancer therapy and vaccine design’, Nature Reviews Immunology, 6(8), pp.595–601. doi: 10.1038/nri1901.
Wang, C. et al. (2009) ‘Investigation, treatment and monitoring of late-onset hypogonadism in males’, International Journal of Andrology, pp. 1–10. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2605.2008.00924.x.
White, T. A. and Lebrasseur, K. (2014) ‘Myostatin and Sarcopenia : Opportunities and Challenges – A MiniReview’, Gerontology, 60(4), pp. 289–293. doi:10.1159/000356740.
Whitmer, R. A. et al. (2008) ‘Central obesity and increased risk of dementia more than three decades later’, Neurology, 71(14), pp. 1057–1064. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000306313.89165.ef.
WHO (2011) Global health and aging. In: World Health Organization. Humanity’s aging. USA.
Wrann, C. D. et al. (2013) ‘Exercise induces hippocampal BDNF through a PGC-1α/FNDC5 pathway’, Cell Metabolism, 18(5), pp. 649–659. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2013.09.008.
Wu, I. C. et al. (2014) ‘Epidemiology of sarcopenia among community-dwelling older adults in Taiwan: A pooled analysis for a broader adoption of sarcopenia assessments’, Geriatrics and Gerontology International, 14(SUPPL.1), pp. 52–60. doi: 10.1111/ggi.12193.
Yang, W. et al. (2007) ‘Myostatin induces cyclin D1 degradation to cause cell cycle arrest through a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/AKT/GSK-3β pathway and is antagonized by insulin-like growth factor’, Journal of Biological Chemistry, 282(6), pp. 3799–3808. doi:10.1074/jbc.M610185200.
Yao, X. et al. (2011) ‘Frailty is associated with impairment of vaccine-induced antibody response and increase in post-vaccination influenza infection in communitydwelling older adults’, Vaccine, 29(31), pp. 5015–5021.doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.04.077.
Yu, J. (2015) ‘The etiology and exercise implications of sarcopenia in the elderly’, International Journal of Nursing Sciences. Elsevier Ltd, 2(2), pp. 199–203. doi:10.1016/j.ijnss.2015.04.010.
Downloads
Published
Categories
License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.






